Selasa, 20 Mei 2014

CONTOH PROPOSAL SKRIPSI



THE CORRELATION BETWEEN READING RATE AND READING COMPREHENSION ACHIEVEMENT OF ELEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF STATE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL 8 OF PALEMBANG

1. Background
            Reading is one of elements in english that should be master by students english languange. Reading have many functions in human life such as : every people will get information, knowledge, news, world progressive and etc.  Most readers, including students senior high school read at the same speed in every different of reading. For example, they spend the same  time when they read different type of materials, such as poetry, textbook, novel, magazine, newspaper , reference material and nonfiction. Moreover, many readers spend longer time of reading. They read everything carefully in order to get high comprehension, i.e. the act of graspin with the mind of ideas, fact, etc.( New World Dictionary ). This condition makes the students become inefficient readers because they do not apply skills that will enable them to read faster.
Cheek et al., ( 1989 : 150-151 ) proposes a number of factors that directly make the students become inefficient / unsuccessful readers. These factors include cognitive experience, sociocultural factors, experiental background, prior knowledge, interest, purpose of reading, linguistic experience and reading rate. In this study the reading rate and reading comprehension achievement become major topics to be discussed. It is base on the assumption that there will be positive correlation between reading rate as the independent variable and reading comprehension achivement as dependent variable of the Eleventh Grade Students Of State Senior High School 8 Of Palembang. There are some reason why the reasearcher choose State Senior High School 8 Of Palembang, they are :
a.          The students have less in the reading
b.         The students do not have any technique in the reading comprehension
c.          The students do not know how fast they can read.
d.         The students get less in the comprehension.

2. Problems
            Base on the background above there are three problems formulated as follows:
  1. Is there a significant difference between students’ reading rate in scientific text and narrtive text?
  2. Is there correlation between students’ reading rate and students’ reading comprehension achievement ?
  3. Does students’ reading rate influence their reading comprehension achievement ?

3. The Objective of the Study
            The objectives of this study are ( I ) to find out whether students’ reading rate in scientific text and narrative text is the same or not; ( 2 ) to find out whether students’ reading rate is correlated with their reading comprehension achievement; and ( 3 ) to find out whether reading rate influences students’ reading comprehension achievement.



4. Hypotheses
1.    H0 = There is no significant difference between students’ reading rate in scientific text and narrative text
H1 = There is significant difference between students’ reading rate in scientific text and narrative text
2.    Reading rate /RR (WPM)                  Reading comprehension Achievment/ RCA
H0 = There is no correlation between students’ reading and students’ reading comprehension achievement.
H1 = There is correlation between students’ reading rate and students’ reading comprehension achievement
3.    H0 = The correlation between students’ reading rate and student’s reading comprehension achievement is not significant
H1 =  The correlation between students’ reading rate and students’ reading comprehension achievement is significant.

5. Significance of the Study
It is expected that the eleventh grade students of state senior high school  8 of palembang can increase their reading rate in order to reduce markedly the time they now require to do necessary reading.




6. Literature Review
            In literature review, the writer discusses (1) reading Comprehension Achievement; (2) Categories Of Reading Comprehension Skills; (3) Reading Rate; (4) Types of Reading; (5) The Levels of Reader: (6) How to Conpute Word per Minute (WPM)
6.1 Reading Comprehension Achievement
Reading generally, can be defined as getting the meaning from the printed page. From this broad definition Rubin ( 1993:55-56 ) states that reading is the process in which information from the text and the knowledge possessed by the reader act together to produce meaning. Inherent with comprehension she proposed that reading comprehension is a complex intellectual process involving a number of abilities. The two major abilities involved word meaning and verbal reasoning. Without word meaning and verbal reasoning, there would be no reading comprehension; without reading comprehension, there would be no reading. In relation to achievement, reading comprehension achievement refers to students’ progress in developing language skills and it can be measured by answering the reading comprehension tests.
According to Palmer cited in Colley ( 1997:114 ) there are three possible outcomes from the comprehension process. First, the reader may construct an interpretation which matches that intended by the author. Second, the reader may construct a satisfactory interpretation of the text which differs from that intended by the author, in which case there may be ambiguity in the surface ( semantic/syntactic) structure of the text or the text may be ambigous in the pragmatic sense, i.e. it may be perfectly plausible in more than one context. Third, the reader may tail to construct an interpretation of the text. This again may be due to its surface structure or to the lack of appropriate knowledge ( lexicall or topic related ) on the part of the reader.
6.2 Categories Of Reading Comprehension Skills
            Smith Cited In Rubin ( 1993:63 ) divides the reading comprehension skill into four categories. Each category is cumulative in that each builds on the other. The four comprehension categories are :
first, literal comprehension which represents the abilty to obtain a low level type of understanding by using only information axplicitly stated. This category requires a lower level of thinking skills.
The next category is interpretation. It concern with the answer that are not directly stated in the text but are suggested or implied. To answer questions at the interpretive level. Readers must have problem solving ability and able to work at various levels or sbstraction. This category demands a gigher level of thinking ablility. Obviously, slow learner will have difficulty working at this level.
 Critical reading is the third category. It involves evaluation, the making of a personal judgements on the accuracy, value, and truthfulness of what is read. To be able to make judgments, a reader must be able to collect, interpret, apply, analyze, and synthesis the information. Critical reading includes such skill as the ability to differentiate between fact and opinion and the ablilty to differentiate between fantasy and reality.
The last category is creative reading. Creative reading uses divergent thinking skills to go beyond literal comprehension, interpretation, and critical reading levels. In creative  reading , the reader tries to come up with new alternate solution to those presented by the writer.
Moreover, Barret cited in Dupuis ( 1989:31-32 ) identifies four levels of comprehension. They are
first, literal recognition/recall ( level 1 ). This level is considered as the lowest cognitive level because the reader understand just what the words mean. The information that is stated explicitly in the text is retrived by the reader in the form given there. Such literal information may be the main idea, a set of specific details or a sequence of events.
The next level is inference ( level 2 ). This level of comprehension requires the reader to understand the literal information from level I and go beyond it to hypotheisize about relationship, unstated ideas and connection between ideas or events. Such inferences are based upon and can be rererred to the basic information in the text ( the literal material ). However, infertial comprehension is necessary for understanding many cause and effect relationship, figurative language, character development and complex sequence of events.
The third level is evaluation ( level 3). In this level the reader is required to make judgements about the reading or to demonstrate the value placed upon the information. The types of judgements that can be made about are the “accurancy, acceptability, worth, desirability, completeness, suitability, timeliness, quality, and truthfulness” of the selection.
The last level is appreciation ( level 4 ). Appreciation relates to the emotional responses of reader to a text. This level of comprehension refers to the reader’s awerness of the literacy and stylistic techniques used by an author to encourage a reader’s emotional response. Barret includes a series of emotional responses, from simple responses to the plot or theme of reading to sophisticated analyses of imagery and language use characteristic of a particular author’s style.

6.3 Reading rate
            In the preceding explanation, reading rate is defined as the ability of readers to speed up their reading in terms of word per minute but it will be meaningless if it is without comprehension. Spache ( 1981:291 ) proposes that :
Rate of reading score are relatively meaningless without a related comprehension measure, for rate should vary from one reading situation to the next according to the reader’s purposes, attitudes, and reading background; the nature of content; and the difficulty of the content.
Furthermore, McWhorter ( 1989:354 ) also states that the factors influence reading rate are classified into three categories: text characteristics, reader’s characteristics, and reader’s purpose. Text characteristics refer to the features of the printed material that influence how easy or how difficult it is to read. It involves sentence length, vocabulary complicated ideas and concepts. Reader’s characteristics are the skill and traits of a person that determine or affect rate and comprehension. For example, reader’s vocabulary level, reader’s comprehension ability, reader’s physical state, reader’s state of mind, reader’s interest in the material, and reader’s background knowledge. The last characteristics is reader’s purpose, that is the reason material is read and the level of comprehension needed. It will be different when a reader is reading magazine article for enjoyment, and reading a textbook to prepare for an exam or the purpose of reading newspaper and reading poem for English literature class. McWhorter also summarizes the average speed of reading ( English as a native language ) based on types of reading as follows:



Method of Reading
Average Speed
Analytical
Study reading
Casual reading
Accelerated
Below 100 WPM
150-250 WPM
250-400 WPM
Above 600 WPM

6.4 Types of Reading
McWhorter ( 1989 – 349 ) divides four basic types of reading, ranging from an extremely slow analysis to an extremely rapid overview of the material. Each type is related to a specific kind of material which has a definite purpose and is done at a certain speed. These are summarized in Table2.
Table 2. Type of Reading
Method of Reading
Range of Speed
Purpose in Reading
Types of materials
Analytical




Study-reading



Casual reading





Accelerated reading
Under 100 WPM




150-250 WPM



250-400 WPM





Above 600 WPM
Detailed comprehension: analysis, evaluation and critique

High Comprehension and high recall

Moderate comprehension of ideas, entertainment, enjoyment, general information

Overview of material, rapid location of a specific fact
Poetry, argumentative writing


Textbook, library research


Novels, newspaper, magazine



Reference material, magazine, novels, nonfiction

6.5 The Levels Of Reader
According to Dupuis et al., ( 1989:33-35 ) readers ( students ) have a different background, interest, and learning ability. Therefore, they vary in reading ability. Based on this statement he distinguishes three levels of reader:
1)   Instructional level readers. The students read at a level appropriate for their grade and their subject. Reader in this level still need instruction in new reading skills, teacher attention, and feedback.
2)   Frustration level readers. This suggests that much of the material designed for their grade level is too difficult for them. Frustration readers may enjoy reading if the material is at their level. However, the readers may be discouraged by difficult material and may be turned off to reading.
3)   Independent level. These include readers who can read most materials written for the grade level without much difficulty.

Further, Cutler ( 1993:19-20 ) distinguishes four very different types of readers. It is based on “eye-stop” or the fixation made by the readers. Each stop is numbered above the letter, word, or phrase.

1.    The very slow reader. The fixation can be seen as follows:
1   2  3  4    5  6  7     8  9  10  11    12  13  14  15    16  17    18 19  20  21
W  h  e  n    y  o  u     r  e  a    d      w   o    r     d      b   y      w  o   r     d
22  23  24   25  26  27  28  29   30  31  32  33  34  35  36  37   38  39  40  41
Y   o    u     w  a     s    t     e     v   a    l     u    a    b   l     e     t     i    m   e
2.    The slow word-by-word reader
1          2       3      4         5     6        7     8         9             10
When   you   read   word   by    word  you  waste  valuable    time

3.    The better-than-average reader
         1                     2                    3                   4
When you read   word by word     you waste     valuable time


4.    The accelerated reader

                   1                                                2
When you read word by word           you waste valuable time

Cutler also states that the very poor reader and the slow word-by-word reader takes much longer time to cover the same material than the better-than-average reader and the accelerate reader.
6.6 How to conpute Word per Minute ( WPM )
In computing the reading rate, Howards ( 1980:98 ) and Jacobs ( 1984:64) states that the speed in reading can be measured by dividing the total number of words with number of seconds and then multiply that figure by 60. It can be described as follows:
 Number of words read
Rate of Reading =                                                   X 60  = WPM
  Number of seconds
For example, a reader reads a passage whose length is 870 words in 90 seconds or 1.5 minutes, he or she can calculate his/her speed in this way :
870 : 90 = 9,6 x 60 = 580 words per minutes
McWhorter ( 1989:351 ) also propose four steps in computing words per minutes. They are:
1.    After choosing a passage in a book or an article, count the total number of words in any way three lines. Devide the total by three and round it off to the nearest whole number. This will give the average number of words per line.
2.    Count the number of lines in the article or book by counting the number of lines on one page and multiplying that number by the total number of pages. Multiply the number of words per line by the total number of line. This will give a reader fairly accurate estimate of the total number of words.
3.    When begin to read, record both minutes and seconds of starting time ( for example, 4:20  18 ). Start reading when the second hand of the clock reaches twelve and then record the finishing time. After that abstrsct the starting time from the finishing time.
4.    Divide your total reading time into the total number words. To do this, round off the number of seconds to the nearest quarter of a minute and then divide. For example, if your total reading was 3 minutes and 12 seconds, round it off to 3.25 minutes and then divide. The answer will be in word per minute score.

The following example illustrates computating of words per minutes.
Total number of words on line 3 lines : 23
Divided by 3 and round off : 23 : 3 = /3 = 8
Number lines in article : 120
Multiply number of words per line by number of lines:
8 x 120 = 960 ( total words )

Subtract finishing time 1 : 13 22
From starting time         1  : 05
8 minutes 22 seconds
Round off to nearest /4 minute :  /4 minutes
Divide time into total number of words:
960: 8.5 = 112 + A fraction ( your reading rate )
In counting the reading rate of students, the writer uses theory of Howard and Jacobs because it is a simple way to count the passages whose length is more than 1000 words and the results of two theories are more or less the same.

7. METHODS AND PROCEDURES
7.1Methods of Research
In this study there are two methods used. They are descriptive method and describtive statistics. According to best ( 1993: 125 ) the describtive method is used to present the data during the research and this method seems appropriate to present fact encountered during the study. The describtive statistics is a methods for presenting quantitative description in manageable form, for example, by describing a single variable and describing the association that connects one variable with another ( Babbie, 1989: 283 ).
The variables described in this study are reading rate and reading comprehension achievement. Reading rate ( independent variable ) is presented by variable X while reading comprehension achievement ( dependent variable ) is presented by variable Y. according to dane ( 1990:77 ), independent variable is the variable which influences other variable while dependent variable is variable which is affected by independent variable.
According to Cutler ( 1993:17 ) the average speed of native speaker in silent reading is 150 words per minutes. Since English is not the first language for Indonesias, the writer assumes that the score that is achieved by the readers ( eleventh students grade students of state senior high school 8 of palembang) Can be classified as follows;

> 150 WPM            means                   Fast Reader
 100-149          `                                   Avarage Reader
< 100                                                   Slow Reader
For reading comprehension achievement, the writer ranges the scores that are achievement by the readers in the following:
80-100             classified         Exellent
60-79                                       Sufficient
50-59                                       Insufficient
<50                                          Poor


7.2 Population and Sample
The population of this study is the eleventh grade students of state senior high school 8 of palembang. The total number of the population is 40 students and the sample is the same as the population. This sample consist of 9 male students and 32 female students. The distribution of sample can be seen in the following table.

Table 3. distribution of sample

Male
Female
Total
9
32
41

7.3 Techniques for collecting the data
   The instruments used for collecting the data consists of two different reading passages/text with 25 multiple choice test items for each passage. The reading passages are taken from Triple Your Reading Speed by Cutler pages 3-16. The test is given to the students under the supervision of writer.
7.4 Techniques for analyzing data
            The data were analyzed using frequency analysis, correlation analysis and regression analysis. The data found from students’ reading rate scores were symbolized as variable X while the data obtained from reading comprehension achievment were symbolized as variable Y. to find out the correlation coefficient, pearson Product Moment was applied and to test the significance of the correlation coefficient, the t-test was used with the significance level p < 0.05. to find out whether variable X influenced variable Y which means the value of variable X determined the value of variable Y regression analysis was used ( Babbie, 1989:43)
7.4.1 The pearson product-moment correlation.
According to Caplovitz ( 1983:64 )
The Pearson Product Moment is linear and symmetrical measure of association between two variables. The Pearson correlation is linear because it estimate the patterned variation of two variables around their means and symmetric because for any pair of variables the the measure of the correlation is constant, looking at variable X’s association with variable Y or looking at B’s association with A. Both of these features are reflected in the manner in which the correlation are computed and in the substantive interpretation of correlation

The method of computing the Pearson Correlation builts directly in the information about the distribution of variables. The comutational definition of correlation between two variables, X and Y, is given by

 

7.4.2   The regresion analysis
Regresion is statical technique for investigating and modeling the relation between variables. According to Montgomery ( 1992:3 )

Techniques for analyzing multi-factor data. Its abroad appeal regresion analysis is one of the most widely used statical results from the conceptually simple process of using an equetation to express the relationship between a set of variables.

After applying the regresion analysis ( to test whether variable X significantly determined variable Y ), the t-test then is applied to test the significance. If t-obtained is lower than t-table, it means that the variable X does not significantly determine variable Y. This analysis is used to support the significance of the correlation analysis.
7.4.3 The frequency Analysis
Frequency analysis is one of the desciptive statistics the deal with the mean, median, mode, standard, etc. it summarizes the raw data in manageable form ( table and graphics ). It is useful in deciding the conlusion of study.



















REFERENCES
Babbie, Earl. 1989. Practicing Social Research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Inc.

Best, John W & J.F Kahn. 1993. Research In Education. 7th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Bond, G.L. & M. A. Tinker. 1973. Reading Difficulties: Their Diagnosis and Correlation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Printice Hall, Inc.

Broomley, Karen D’ Angelo. 1992. Language Art: Exploring Connections. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Brown, James I. 1987. Reading Power. 3rd ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Health and Company.

Butler, Cristopher. 1985. Statistics in Linguistics. New York, NY: Basil Blackwell, Inc.

Caplovitz, David. 1983. The stage of social research. New York, NY: A Wiley Interscience Publication.

Cheek, H.Earl, Rona Y Flippo, & Jimmy D Lindsey.1989. Reading For Success In Elementary School. Chicago, IL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,,Inc.


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